在前面的一个问题中,专家老师提到下面这个句子虽然没有逗号,但是非限制性定语从句:
She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not.
确实我们的老师也说过,有没有逗号并非判断是否为非限制性定语从句的唯一标准。我跟我们的老师讨论过,我们认为像夸克这么“大”的一个语法学家,应该不会在这个问题上出错,更何况这本书有多名作者,都是大专家,而且还要经过编辑的反复校对,应该不会犯这么低级的错误。也就是说,我们更相信这确实是一个限制性定语从句。我们的理由是:
1. 在没有上下文的情况下,如果去掉which her predecessor was not,只剩下She is the perfect accountant,意思并不完整。就好比下面这样的句子,语法书上说它们都是限制性定语从句:
Show me the coat you bought. 把你买的大衣给我瞧瞧。
The man who spoke last was Dr. Burleson. 最后一个发言的是布尔逊博士。
Which was the hotel that was recommended to you? 哪一个是推荐给你的旅馆?
2. 假若She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not.中的定语从句是非限制性的,那么就应该可以加个逗号,即可改写为:
She is the perfect accountant, which her predecessor was not.
我和我的老师都认为,在没有特定上下文的情况下,这个句子很奇怪。
3. 我们认为夸克的分析并没有错,She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not. 中的定语从句确实是限制性定语从句,虽然网上的翻译是“她是很优秀的会计师,而她的前任则不是”(好像是按非限制性定语从句来翻译的),但这只是翻译处理的技巧问题,其实它也完全可以理解为:她是那种具有她的前任所不具有的优秀素质的会计师。这样翻译确实有点别扭,但按这样理解是完全可以的。
恳请各位专家对此进行讨论,谢谢各位专家老师!
非常感谢网友就此问题提出讨论,这对于我们准确理解英文句子的原意,对限制性定语和非限制性定语的本质区别的理解,对我们更好地掌握关系代词的用法都有帮助。希望通过讨论我们都能有所收获,共同进步。
我的讨论意见如下:
1 首先我认为网友和他的同事没有准确把握perfect的词义,这从他将perfect翻译成“优秀的”就可以看出。我们看看朗文词典对形容词perfect的三条解释
1 not having any mistakes, faults, or damage
2 as good as possible, or the best of its kind
3 exactly what is needed for a particular purpose, situation, or person
Crusty bread is the perfect accompaniment to this soup.
the perfect actor for the part
就我们的句子而言,perfect应该是哪个语义呢?第一条意为完美无缺、不犯错误、没有瑕疵。这显然不适合我们的句子的意思,更何况如果是限制性定语的话,这个perfect的素质是靠排除法排除了前任的素质后的“优秀素质”。第二条意为同类中最好的,近似于最高级的意义。如果是最高级,特指就指唯一的,定冠词的使用能来自于我们讨论的句子的那种定语从句吗?显然不可以。第三条意为正好是。。。所需要的,相当于the right person/thing. 从我们的句子可以看出,这是将主语和她的前任在作对比。主语正是某单位所需要的那种会计。她不必完美无缺,不必是行业中最好的,但她正适合这个单位的这个会计的职位,她是最合适的人选。很明显,perfect的第三条意思才是我们句子中的perfect的真正意思。这种用法的定冠词的使用是很常见的,如果这个岗位只需要一个人,她就是这个人,那自然要特指。我们看看第三条解释下面的两个词典例句perfect前都有定冠词。这个意义的perfect靠我们的句子中的那种定语从句能够限定名词的所指范围吗?显然不能。
网友说的没有错,在没有上下文的情况下,定冠词the的特指没法理解。但网友应该知道一个句子实际都是有上下文的,夸克只是从一个上下文的语境中截取了这个句子,没有做任何的改动,以便保证句子的原汁原味。但从主语和她的前任的对比来看,我们可以推测上下文很可能是在谈论主语she很适合当前的工作,领导满意。这个句子中隐含着for the job/for the company/for this position. 也就是说这里的特指是语境特指,而不是前照应特指。这就好比一个朋友告诉我他花了5000元买了一件外套,我好奇什么外套会这么贵。于是我说:Show me the coat, which I think is too expensive.这个句子本来是有语境的,coat的所指是明确的。可以要是有人认为我是权威,用我的句子做例句,只用了这一句。读者会以为后面的定语从句是限制the coat的定语从句,如果恰好又没有用逗号的话。
网友就是由于误解了perfect的语义,按照前照应去解释特指的,这种解释很勉强,这就是为什么他自己都觉得汉语译文不够通顺的原因。
2 Huddleston著The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language第1054页 (这一节是讲定语从句的先行词为不同类型时,引导词选wh类还是非wh类。wh类指以wh-开头的关系代词和关系副词,非wh类指that和省略关系词。一共9种情况,以下为第7种情况)
(g) Relativised element is ascriptive predicative complement: normally non-wh
i He is no longer the trustworthy friend that he was in those days.
ii The interview turned out not to be the ordeal that I had thought it would be.
Which is virtually impossible here; we saw, however, in 44ii (It turned out that he wasn't the person who I'd thought he was) that the wh type is permitted when the complement is specifying rather than ascriptive.
即Huddleston认为,限制性从句中关系代词作归属性表语,正常情况下用非wh-类关系词(即that或省略关系代词)。又进一步说which在这种情况下几乎是不可能的。即认为这里要用that(或省略关系代词)。但如果表语是确认性表语,则可以用wh-类关系代词,如文中括号里面的例句。该书省略关系代词的例句如下:
Her book describes the fine sceptical intelligence of the scholar she is. (Huddleston等著The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language P1045)
夸克则认为关系代词作表语时,无论先行词指人还是指物,无论是限制性定语从句还是非限制性定语从句,which是唯一的选择。
夸克《英语语法大全》英文版P.1260
17.25 Relative pronoun as complement
When the relative pronoun functions as non-prepositional complement in the relative clause, the choice is limited to which for both personal and non-personal antecedents, in both restrictive clauses (cf17.14) and nonrestrictive clauses (cf 17.22).
He is a teetotaller, which I am not.
This is a powerful car, which my last car was not.
李基安编著的自考英语语法用书《现代英语语法》(2000年外研社出版)第289页有一下相关内容,录于此,供参考:
In the restrictive relative clause, we usually use which, not who, as the relative pronoun that plays the role of subject complement or object complement. But opinions vary concerning whether or not we can use that or simply do not use a pronoun at all. We may assume that which is preferred in formal English while which, that, and the omitted pronoun are all acceptable in informal English:
That was the kind of person which / that / ( ) he was.
She became a distinguished actress which / that / ( ) her mother never was and wanted to be all her life.
He is not the rogue which / that / ( ) we thought him.
即李基安老师认为首选which,不能用who. 他意识到在能否用that以及能否省略关系代词方面有争议。但他最终还是认为which,that及省略关系代词都可以。
从以上语法书可以看出语法学家在这个问题上观点对立。一个认为只能用which,不能省略,也不能用that。一个认为which几乎不可能用在这里,要用that或省略。二人都没有解释为什么不能用which或that。各自的书中都有有利于自己观点的例句。都是语法大家,谁对谁错,不能光看他们的书。我们需要从语料库找证据,看看实际语言应用的情况如何。
3 关于夸克的《英语语法大全》我想说几句。夸克书中的例句都是来自实际的调查结果。将某种语法结构让大量native speaker看,调查这种结构被人们接受的程度如何。书中打星号的句子为不可接受的句子,打问号的表示不规范的句子,受过教育的人多会认为这种句子不符合语法,但也有人这么使用。如果一个句子不打任何标记,则表示广为接受,是正确的句子。现在我们假设夸克将She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not.这个句子拿给1000个native speak看,或者让他们在which,that,who或省略关系代词之间选择。结果是百分之九十九的人认为这个句子只能用which。不能用that,who, 也不能用省略关系代词。结果和夸克书中的观点一样,即这种句子只能用which。于是这个句子连同调查结果一起做了夸克书中限制性定语从句中关系代词做表语只能用which的证据。
我今天也做了一个小小的调查。我把这个句子拿给北大法律系英国留学生和在北京某语言学校作教务总监的英国人看。我问了两个问题:一、这个句子中的which可不可以用that、who替换,或者可不可以省略which。他们二人都认为不可以,只能用which。这和夸克的观点一致。我的第二个问题是,如果我给which前加一个逗号,这个句子的意思有没有改变?他们二人都认为加了逗号意思不变,只是更加highlight,即更加突出。也就是说,至少这两个native speaker认为which前加不加逗号不影响这个句子的意思,就说明在他们看来,这个定语从句对主句的先行词没有限制作用,只有描述作用。这不正好证明了我的看法:这是个没有用逗号的非限制性定语从句。非限制性定语从句当然不能用that,当然不允许省略,归属性表语当然不能用who。于是我猜想,要是当初夸克在调查的时候也多问一句:加了逗号后两句意义有无不同,夸克的这部分可能就会改写的。
4 我们看看COCA语料库的搜索情况
我打the man which/the boy which/the woman which/the girl which/the person which,没有搜索到任何which在限制性定语从句中作表语的例句,只有一条在非限制性定语从句中做表语的例子。
Dalis seems part grandma, which she is, and part diva, which she used to be.
然后我搜索that和省略关系代词的例句,搜到以下句子:
Well, Chris, that's exactly where I start thinking that maybe the man... (Voiceover)... I follow for the last three, four years is not the man that he says he is.
此例句只说明that在限制性定语从句中做表语,说明不了表语是归属性的还是确认性的。
Mr. Bernanke explained his management of the economy in the calm, patient and serious manner of the college professor that he used to be.
Reflected in Cobain's eyes, Tyler saw the heroin addict that he used to be.
He's nowhere near the divisive figure that he used to be
以上两句为限制性定语从句中用that,归属性表语。
I learned that I, too, had been shocked, that I was no longer the person I once was.
限制性从句中省略关系代词的例句。归属性表语。
And so after watching that devastating' 92 campaign, George W. thought I'm going to go out there, campaign on similar issues but show how this can be done, you know, with the right passion in place and show that Anne Richards is not the woman that, you know, everyone thinks she is.
限制性定语省略关系代词,归属性表语。
But she was not the woman she seemed to be, and…
限制性定语省略关系代词,归属性表语。
Either my father was... inadequate... for my mother... he was not the man I thought he was... not a great man... not even a good man... (beat)... or my mother was... trash... a common whore...
Here is my dead daughter, cold and unkind and difficult and so different from the girl she used to be that only now do I finally accept that Stephanie is gone forever, even as she sits before me, slurping spaghetti, the red sauce blooding her lips.
What had happened, she wondered, to the girl she used to be?
She looks years younger, the girl she used to be.
I think Shelly Sterling is probably correct, that his Alzheimer's has truly changed his personality, that he's not the man he used to be.
Reyes suspected Aeron's was tainted, as the warrior was not the man he used to be.
But each day on the streets had built in him another layer, separating him from everything he'd ever felt, everything about the man he used to be and the life he used to lead.
以上例句均为省略关系代词。
She wished that she could rewind the clock and find Abby, the girl she used to be, perched on the cusp of her life instead of entrenched in the middle of it with no apparent way out
此句为确认性表语,省略关系代词who
She looked to Kip, who shrugged, as if to remind her he was a shell of the man he used to be.
确认性表语?省略关系代词who
以上两个例句中的关系代词省略。但从句表语为确认性表语,可以根据Huddleston的观点认为省略了who.
语料库的例句支持Huddleston的观点,与夸克的观点正好相反。最多见的是省略关系代词,其次是用that。 Which和who都为搜索到,但最后两句可以认为是who的省略,因为表语是确认性的。
从perfect的语义分析,从省略从句后主句的完整性,从我问及两个英国native speaker对句子的理解,加逗号不改变句义,从语料库的例句这四个方面考虑,我仍然认为,夸克的这个句子是个非限制性定语从句,否则他无法解释为什么调查结果认为不能用that和省略关系代词,实际语料库却可见到如此多的省略和用that的情况。他书中关于关系代词做表语只能用which的观点与语料库反映的实际情况不符,而非限制性定语从句中关系代词作表语才是只能用which。
夸克的分析显然不如Huddleston深刻。夸克简单的认为只要关系代词在从句中做表语就只能用which,不能用who.我们知道关系代词做表语不用who是因为这时的关系代词不是表示先行词表示的这个人,而是这个人的素质、特点、身份、职业等这样的抽象概念,当然不能用who来指代抽象概念。但实际交际过程中也的确会遇到关系代词在从句中做表语,而关系代词指代的是这个人本身,不是这个人的性格、特征、身份、职业的。那么which是不能用的,要用who。例如:我原以为那个穿黑衣服的人是我要找的但又不认识的人汤姆,后来才搞清楚他原来不是汤姆,我认错人了。就这个语境写一个句子:It turned out that the man in black was not the person who I had thought he was. 这就是确认性表语。who指代的是person这个人。不能用which。而夸克没有做表语的区分,没有分析这种表语该用什么关系代词,显然是不够的。这就是为什么我更愿意相信Huddleston的说法。
为什么夸克会得出一个错误的结论,而且非常绝对,但却明显和实际脱节,他把非限制性定语从句当成限制性定语从句去调查并由此得出结论,而那个结论其实是非限制定语从句的调查结果。这可以解释为什么他的结论不符合事实。
如果大量的例句证明that和省略关系代词可以在限制性定语从句中做表语,而找不到语料库或词典中which在限制性定语从句中做表语的例句,这也可以从反面证明这个句子中的定语从句是非限制性定语从句。
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She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not.
其实,这个句子不用考虑得太复杂。网友的翻译有点啰嗦:“她是那种具有她的前任所不具有的优秀素质的会计师。” 看下面,我重新翻译了。
▲ 我认为,这个句子是限制性的定语从句。
但就汉语而言,按限制性定语从句,或者按非限制性定语从句进行翻译,都是对的。例如:
1. 她是前任素质上所不具备的完美会计师。(按限制性从句翻译)
2. 她是一个素质完美的会计师,而她的前任却不是。(按非限制性从句翻译)
▲ 前面,曹老师引用“归属表语”和“确指表语”两个概念,来判断关系代词作表语时如何选择的问题。但我觉得,这个规则有一定的作用,但仍不能完全解决有关问题。
虽然,网友并没有询问为何使用which的问题,但我还是想从关系代词which 的特殊用法,谈谈我对使用which,而不用who 或that 的理解。
▲ 关系代词which,除了指代主句中的某个名词或者整个主句的内容外,还可以代替主句中被形容词修饰的名词词组、形容词或形容词短语,在从句中作表语。因为which 能表达比that 和who 更加广泛、更加丰富的内容,这是关系代词that 和who 取代不了的。
网友的这个句子:She is the perfect accountant which her predecessor was not. which 不单纯指代accountant,而是整个词组the perfect accountant。这可以说明了为何用which 的问题。假设which 指accountant本身,那么句子就讲不通了,前任也是“会计师”啊,但不是the perfect accountant “素质完美的会计师”。例如:
The man was unable to earn enough money, which allowed him to support his family.
那人无法赚到足够的钱,足够的钱才能让他得以养活家人。
(which 指代enough money,不是money,更不是整个主句:既然赚不到钱,后面的句子就不通了。)
1. He was not sick, which some of the other passengers were.
他没有生病,但有些其他旅客却病了。
(which指代形容词sick)
2. She is always careless, which we should not be.
她总是马虎大意,我们可不应该这样。
(which指代形容词careless)
3. The two policemen were completely trusted, which in fact they were.
那两个警察完全受到信任,事实上,也真是如此。
(which指代形容词短语completely trusted)
4. She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.
她对孩子们很耐心,她丈夫却很少这样。
(which 指代形容词短语very patient towards the children)
▲ 从以上例句可以看出,关系代词which 可以指代主句中的某个词语,也可指代主句中的某些词语,甚至整个主句。从它指代形容词(短语)以及含有形容词的名词短语(the perfect accountant 和enough money),以及整个主句,说明which 带有“描述性质”。指“人”时,关系代词which 的作用是“描写”人,而that 和who 的作用是“确认”人。从这个角度理解which 指代“人”的用法,就很容易了。这样,就高度概括了下面这句话的内涵:“当关系代词 which 充当定语从句的表语时,可以用来表示某类人所具有的性格、人品、素质、地位或职业等”。
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