比较状语从句中主语的单独省略初探
■倪肖丁(西安)
导语
比较状语从句中,省略是一种常见现象,它使得句子的结构更为简洁、语义更为明确、表达更为顺畅。比如:
Bill runs faster than his sister (does/runs).(省略谓语)
Mary has known Peter better than she has (known) John.(省略主动词)
Kate doesn’t write so many poems now as (she did/wrote poems ) years ago.(省略主谓宾)
This animal is three times as popular with girls as(it is)with boys.(省略主语和be动词)
省略的目的是简约和避免重复。因此原则上讲,“已知信息”和“可知信息”都可以也应该省略。从上述例句可知,比较从句中的省略具有多样性,是否恢复省略部分不影响语义的表达。
但是,比较从句中主语单独省略的情况相对少见。因此,人们对于More people hope to live in the countryside than used to一句可能会感到困惑:than直接加used to的使用是否得当?than后究竟省略了什么?如何复原从句的主语?
首先,可以肯定的说,…than used to的用法并无不当之处,英文辞书典籍中不难见其踪影。例如:
More people own houses than used to years ago. (UGE)
More people are buying a second car than used to twenty years ago.(EGUC)
Fewer people smoke these days than used to. (CIDE)
从现有的例证看,用than used to从句时,主句主语往往伴有more, fewer或less这样的修饰词。
确定一个用法是否存在相对容易,要诠释比较从句中主语单独省略的现象、揭示其一般规律则较为复杂。本文从以下三方面进行粗浅的探讨,以期抛砖而引玉。
一、比较从句中主语单独省略的现象
按照The Cambridge Dictionary of English Grammar(Ellipsis in comparative clauses一节)的说法:than和as从句中主语缺失是一种”standard English”。所以在正规英文出版物中不难发现其踪影。例如:
(01)I want a cake as big as can be!(WALD)
(02)Though they were brothers, the difference between them was as great as could be.(DCAU)
(03)They seemed as happy as can be when I last saw them.(WALD)
(04)Hillary works faster than was expected.(CDEG)
(05)She's not as upset with them as might be expected.(WALD)
(06)The audience seemed more enthusiastic than was expected.(CDEG)
(07)It happens earlier than was arranged (LPVD)
(08)Doctors often work for more time than is usual.(LDOCEe)
(09)They are afraid of incriminating themselves and say no more than is necessary.(CCED)
(10)More people died off flu in 1919 than were killed in the First World War.(PEU)
(11)The result will be less effective than would be achieved by a teacher in harmony with the unit. (LGSWE)
(12)You spent more money than was intended to be spent. (CGOEL)
以上例句虽然具有共性,即as或than从句均出现单独的主语缺失,但要回答“缺失的是什么?”,“怎样复原?”等问题,需要个性化处理。
二、缺失的主语的确定和恢复
按照“省略”一般理论,如果省略是为了避免重复,那么比较从句中缺失的主语应该是已知信息,可在主句中找到其先行项(antecedent);如果省略不是为了重复而是为了简洁,缺损的应是可知信息,前文中没有先行项,但交流双方心知肚明,不言而喻,例如:(I) don’t know。在这两种情况下,确定并恢复被省略的主语应该容易。但实际操作起来并没有那么简单。大致可分为以下几类情况。
1.可以直接采用主句中出现的先行项做从句的主语。
这类情况一般出现as…as can be结构中。添补主语后的从句结构完整,意思不变。例如,
句(01)的先行项是主句的宾语a cake,故可复原为::
(01a)I want a cake as big as it can be!
句(03)的先行项为主句的主语they,故可复原为:
(02a)They seemed as happy as they can be when I last saw them.
同理,句(13)中,从句主语they可被省略:
(13)Both houses were as clean as (they) could be. (DCEU)
再看下面的例句:
(14)It promised to be a more difficult undertaking than might appear at first sight.(CCED)
此句并非as…as can be结构,但比较从句也是系动词后无表语,这一点是共性,因此than后亦可添加主语it。
2. 可以直接采用主句出现的名词或代词做主语,但结构要修改。
此类情况中,主句也含有从句被省略的主语的先行项,因此可以将其作为从句的主语,但从句须作必要的变动。例如:
句(04)可改写为:
(04a)Hillary works faster than she was expected to (do/ work)
句(05)可改写为:
(05a)She's not as upset with them as she might be expected to be.
之所以在句尾添补to不定式,是因为sb/sth be expected需要一个主语补足语。但在than/as后主语省略的情况下,补足语就成为多余。
按照CGEL意见,从句如为被动语态,操作词(即助动词、情态动词和be动词)可以略去,留下-ed分词即可。因此,句(15)中的was可有可无:
(15)The stock has always performed as well or better than (was) expected. (HGE)
Edward D. Johnson 在The Handbook of Good English(1991)一书中将句(15)的省略部分全部添补后改写如下:
(15a) The stock has always performed as well as it was expected to perform or better than it was expected to perform.
当然,对省略句进行如此复杂的添补只是说明省略的来龙去脉,并非出于交际的目的。
3. 从句的主语虽然省略,但主句中不存在其先行项。
比较从句中的这类省略读起来很自然,意思也明了。但主句中的名词或代词与从句中省略的主语并非同一人物或事物,亦即主句中不存在从句主语的先行项。要对缺失的主语进行添补可分为两类稍有不同的情况:
3.1 than后是系表结构。
这类从句中,系动词后通常是necessary, normal, usual,acceptable和possible等少数修饰性的形容词。
例如句(08)Doctors often work for more time than is usual。主句中有两个名词doctors和time,than后填入doctors的代词they显然逻辑不通;填入time的代词it似乎可以,但实际上也不可取。
从语义上讲,it指代的是“同一个”,而句中的此time绝非彼time,如果两个time是同一体,怎么会一个比另一个more?
又例如:
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