文化背景：语言根植的土壤

——语言学习离不开文化背景

刘 永 科

引 言

英语课程改革势在必行，英语考试改革箭在弦上。

从上海一道高考难题，看英语文字游戏还能玩多久？曾几何时，上海的一道高考英语试题，难倒了无数的考生：

Mrs. Brown was much disappointed to see the washing machine she had had ________went wrong again.

A. it         B. it repaired    C. repaired      D. to be repaired

面对此题，许多考生感到云里雾里，束手无策。因为他们不会分析这个句子结构，看不懂这个句子的意思，不知该如何下笔。首先，我们不禁要问，这个句子有意义吗？英美人读起来就感到拗口的句子，何况我们中国学生？（此题标准答案是C。但是，我们的考生谁见过had had repaired went这样的句子啊！）

人们学习语言的目的是为了交际，而不是为了显示他们可以记住多少语言规则。日常会话所需要的是信息，是根据语意表达自己与人交际，而不需要语音、词汇和语法的规则。

语言学习的目的就是，很简单的一句话：语言是用来交流、学习和传承历史与文化的唯一工具。

但是，我们先前的英语教学似乎已经偏离了这个语言学习目的和功能，很多时候我们学习语言的目的就是为了学习而学习，为了考试而考试。但是语言的学习就是一个不断学以致用的过程，只有通过大量的语言实践，才能够实现和达到语言学习的目的和功能。

长期以来，如何培养和提高学生的英语语言能力，一直是专家和老师们共同探讨和关注的问题。

对于一个学习英语的人来讲，他必须首先意识到，语言与其文化背景是密不可分的。要想学好一门外语，就必须了解使用这种语言的民族及其文化背景。语言和文化彼此依存，相互促进，相互影响。只有对文化有了相当的了解，才能真正体会交际场景，产生对语言准确无误的理解和感觉。从而应对各种语言现象，达到交流无障碍的最终目的。

既然语言是文化不可或缺的一部分，那么脱离了文化背景，语言教学势必会成为无本之木，无源之水。因此，教师应该在基础英语教学中，让学生了解西方民族的生活习惯和思维方式。并在此基础上，提高学生对语音、词汇、语法和固定表达方式的掌握程度。一旦学生对某些词汇和表达的背景文化有所了解，他们就会对枯燥的学习，特别是在记忆方面产生新的兴趣和学习动力。可以肯定地说，文化背景是语言根植的土壤，语言学习离不开文化背景。对此，本文拟从以下四个方面讨论：

1. 语言和文化背景的关系

2. 学习语言的极致目标

3. 中国学生如何直面西方文化

4. 中西文化差异在语言上的反映

一、语言和文化背景的关系

语言是文化的载体(carrier)，语言带有文化的烙印(brand)，文化是语言的底座(base)。一句话，语言深深根植于民族文化的土壤之中，它反映了一个民族的历史文化背景、生活态度、思维方式等。语言反过来又能促进文化的发展。所以，学习语言，不能不了解该语言的文化背景。

语言使人类表达思想、进行交际、开展工作和生活成为现实。所以，有了语言，就有了社会，同时也就有了文化的记载和传播。社会的各种文化现象借助于语言得以传承，语言是人类文化的镜像折射。 

 从某种意义上说，语言是文化的一部分，并对文化起着重要作用。难怪有些社会学家认为，语言是文化的基石——没有语言，就没有文化；从另一个方面看，语言又受文化的影响，反映折射文化。可以说，语言反映一个民族的特征，它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景，而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。语言与文化互相影响，互相作用;学习语言必须了解文化，理解文化必须了解语言。文化是形形色色的，语言也是多种多样的。由于民族间文化和语言上的差别，不同文化之间的交流常常遇到困难，在交流时产生误会，甚至出现预料不到的后果。这是因为，语言学习并非孤立的，必须回归到语言所根植于的文化土壤。

任何一门语言，都是由文化孕育出来的，并在这样的文化土壤中继续发展。所以，对于语言的学习，绝对不能脱离语言产生的环境和文化。就像汉语形容冤枉，会说“我冤枉”，“我很冤”，当然更为生动的是“我比窦娥还冤啊”。如果一个外国人学习汉语不了解中国成语的来源和故事，不了解中国的文化，他的表意绝对是生硬的，不准确的。即使你就告诉他“比窦娥还冤”是“很冤”，他总会再有一些地方会用错。因为他不能够准确地理解其背后的文化背景和适用环境。反之，我们中国人学习外语也是一样，当语言学习的积累到一定程度后，在基本表意的基础上，为了更加地符合外国人的理解和表达方式，我们就需要再进一步地研究他们的文化，寻求语言产生的土壤和渊源。

二、学习语言的极致目标

一般认为，人们学习语言的目的是为了交际，而不是为了显示他们可以记住多少语言规则。日常会话所需要的是信息，是根据语意表达自己与人交际，而不需要语音、词汇和语法的规则。

语言学习的目的就是很简单的一句话，语言是用来交流，学习和传承历史与文化的唯一工具。

但是，我们目前的英语学习似乎已经偏离了这个语言学习目的与功能，很多时候我们学习语言的目的就是为了学习而学习。古人有云：“学以致用”，可我们现在很多时候发现所学难以致用。难以学以致用的真正原因之一，是我们缺乏实践的精神。

但是语言的学习就是一个不断学以致用的过程，只有通过大量的语言实践，才能够实现和达到语言学习的目的和功能。

以上观点强调了语言的交际功能和语言的实践意义。但对于这个问题，新的观点也在不断产生。

华中师范大学鲁子问教授在其《英语教育动态真实原则研究与实验》的研究报告中指出，“英语教育是语言教育，也是文化教育”，并指出，英语教育的本质应该是“培养学生运用英语的能力，并帮助学生形成对于英语国家文化的开放合理的跨文化意识”。

21世纪英语教育的本质，应该是：语言能力是进一步获得文化知识的必要前提和手段，英语学习是为了获得进一步学习外族文化的能力。英语学习的最终目标，是培养文化意识，即通过英语学习了解异族文化，提高文化理解能力，提高文化对比能力，提高跨文化交际能力，提高处理异文化的能力。

三、中国学生如何直面西方文化

多元化是全球化进程中文化发展的一个重要特点和趋势，在这一趋势下必然会带来诸如传统与现代、世界与本土、批判与继承等关系的变化。语言和思想教育不能忽视这种变化，必须做出及时的回应。特别是随着全球化进程的加快，中西文化交流日益频繁，传统文化与现代文化交融日趋深入，西方文化思潮对中国学生的影响不可低估。因此，加强学生文化自觉的培养是教育工作面临的时代挑战和崭新课题。

英语教学不能是单纯的语言教学，还应扩大学生的视野，丰富英语知识，了解英语国家的文化和社会风俗习惯。记得有位大师说过，“学外语而不懂其文化，等于记住了一连串没有实际意义的符号，很难有效地加以运用，而且每每用错。”因此，在英语教学中需要渗透西方文化知识的教育，让学生具备“文化能力”。

文化能力，亦叫“文化意识”或“跨文化意识”。一个具备文化能力的英语学习者应该有以下几个基本特征：一、对异国文化和本国文化的异同比较敏感；二、在英语听读过程中，能根据英语文化背景自觉调整自己对内容的理解，并在说写过程中注意语言的适应性；三、能够理解和尊重异国文化，并且能够在文化对比中更深地理解和欣赏本国文化，较好地处理文化差异；四、能够与不同文化背景的人们共同生活和劳动。在文化交流中，我们应该挺直自己的文化脊梁，发扬和继承自己的民族优秀文化传统，利用英语语言这个载体，让世界了解和欣赏我们中华民族的优秀文化。

最新修订的《普通高中英语课程》，也明确指出：

英语属于印欧语系，是当今世界广泛使用的国际通用语，是国际交流与合作的重要沟通工具，是思想与文化的重要载体。学习和使用英语对汲取人类优秀文明成果、借鉴外国先进科学技术、传播中华文化、增进中国与其他国家的相互理解与交流具有重要的意义和作用。

普通高中英语课程，旨在为学生继续学习英语和终身发展打下良好基础。普通高中英语课程强调对学生语言能力、文化意识、思维品质和学习能力的综合培养，具有工具性和人文性融合统一的特点。帮助学生进一步学习和运用英语基础知识和基本技能，发展跨文化交流能力，为他们学习其他学科知识、汲取世界文化精华、传播中华文化创造良好的条件，也为他们未来继续学习英语或选择就业提供更多机会。同时还应帮助学生树立人类命运共同体意识和多元文化意识，形成开放包容的态度，发展健康的审美情趣和良好的鉴赏能力，加深对祖国文化的理解，增强爱国情怀，坚定文化自信，树立正确的世界观、人生观和价值观，为学生未来参与知识创新和科技创新，更好地适应世界多极化、经济全球化和社会信息化奠定基础。

发展英语学科核心素养，落实立德树人根本任务

普通高中英语课程具有重要的育人功能，旨在发展学生的语言能力、文化意识、思维品质和学习能力等英语学科核心素养，落实立德树人根本任务。实施普通高中英语课程应以德育为魂、能力为重、基础为先、创新为上，注重在发展学生英语语言运用能力的过程中，帮助他们学习、理解和鉴赏中外优秀文化，培育中国情怀，坚定文化自信，拓展国际视野，增进国际理解，逐步提升跨文化沟通能力、思辨能力、学习能力和创新能力，形成正确的世界观、人生观和价值观。

学科核心素养与课程目标

（一）学科核心素养

学科核心素养是学科育人价值的集中体现，是学生通过学科学习而逐步形成的正确价值观、必备品格和关键能力。英语学科核心素养主要包括语言能力、文化意识、思维品质和学习能力。

1. 语言能力

语言能力指在社会情境中，以听、说、读、看、写等方式理解和表达意义的能力，以及在学习和使用语言的过程中形成的语言意识和语感。英语语言能力构成英语学科核心素养的基础要素。英语语言能力的提高蕴含文化意识、思维品质和学习能力的提升，有助于学生拓展国际视野和思维方式，开展跨文化交流。

2. 文化意识

文化意识指对中外文化的理解和对优秀文化的认同，是学生在全球化背景下表现出的跨文化认知、态度和行为取向。文化意识体现英语学科核心素养的价值取向。文化意识的培育有助于学生增强国家认同和家国情怀，坚定文化自信，树立人类命运共同体意识，学会做人做事，成长为有文明素养和社会责任感的人。

3. 思维品质

思维品质指思维在逻辑性、批判性、创新性等方面所表现的能力和水平。思维品质体现英语学科核心素养的心智特征。思维品质的发展有助于提升学生分析和解决问题的能力，使他们能够从跨文化视角观察和认识世界，对事物作出正确的价值判断。

4. 学习能力

学习能力指学生积极运用和主动调适英语学习策略、拓宽英语学习渠道、努力提升英语学习效率的意识和能力。学习能力构成英语学科核心素养的发展条件。学习能力的培养有助于学生做好英语学习的自我管理，养成良好的学习习惯，多渠道获取学习资源，自主、高效地开展学习。

四、中西文化差异在语言上的反映

（一）英语中的idioms就是英国文化在语言上的反映

有这样一个故事：一位法国人到英国旅行。有一次，在居住的旅馆房间里他听到楼上有人大喊：“Look out!”, 这时他把头伸出窗外，不料从上面一盆脏水泼了下来，不偏不倚地浇在了他的头上。他大吃一惊，感到不可思议，英国人为什么如此无礼？后来他询问一位英国朋友：明明让他“伸出头来向外看”，为什么会这样呢？这位朋友说：英语的 “Look out” 实际上是“当心，小心”的意思，是告诉别人不要伸头向外看！原来，不少英语表达似是而非。英语初学者千万不要望文生义。还有一些比喻，如：as busy as a bee, 也不能照字面翻译成“像蜜蜂一样忙”，应直接译为“十分忙，特忙”。再举数例：

a white elephant是“负担、累赘”，而不是一头“白象”。

green hand是“生手”，而不是“绿手”。

rain cats and dogs是“大雨倾盆”，而不是“下雨带着猫和狗”。

friendly camera是“傻瓜照相机”，而不是什么“友好摄影机”。

small potato是“小人物”，而不是“小土豆”。

pull one’s leg是“愚弄某人”，而不是“拉后腿”。

face the music 是“面对危险，承担后果”，而不是“听音乐”。

关于英语的习惯说法，一位中国学生的亲身经历说明了其重要性。通过阅读下面的短文，我们知道“You don’t say!” 是英语的一个习语，不是“你不要说！”，而是“确实是，真的是”。

Importance of the English Idioms

A year ago, I paid no attention to English idioms, though my teacher emphasized their importance again and again. But recently, the importance of English idioms was shown in an amusing experience.

One day, I happened to meet an Englishman on the road, and soon we began to talk. As I was talking about how I was studying English, the foreigner seemed to be surprised. Gently shaking his head and shrugging his shoulders, he said, “You don’t say!”, “You don’t say!”

I was puzzled, I thought, perhaps this was not a proper topic. “Well, I’d better change the topic.” So I said to him, “Well, shall we talk about the Great Wall? By the way, have you been to the Great Wall?” “Certainly, everyone back home would laugh at me if I left China without seeing it. It is wonderful.” He was deep in thought when I began to speak like a tourist guide. “The Great Wall of China is one of the wonders in the world. We are very proud of it.” Soon I was stopped again by his words: “You don’t say!” I couldn’t help asking, “Why do you ask me not to talk about it?” “Well, I didn’t ask you to do so,” he answered, greatly surprised. I said, “Didn’t you say ‘you don’t say’?”

Hearing this, the Englishman laughed to tears. He began to explain, “ ‘You don’t say’ actually means ‘really’! It is an expression of surprise. Perhaps you don’t pay attention to English idioms.” Only then did I know how foolish I had been. Since that time I have been more careful with idiomatic expressions.

一般说来，英语成语都是有其文化背景和来历的。如：a white elephant之所以比喻“无用之物”，是因为有这样一个故事：

As we all know now, elephants are useful animals. But is a white elephant useful? Has anyone given you a “white elephant”? Do you know what a “white elephant” is?

Many hundreds of years ago, elephants were very much needed in India. The elephants did many kinds of work for the people. Almost all the elephants were gray. But there were some all-white ones, too. Because they were so rare, they were never made to do any work.

All of the white elephants became the king’s elephants. He did not let them work. But he could feed them, anyway, because he was very rich.

If the king became angry with one of his men, he gave the man a white elephant. This was a punishment. The man could not make the elephant work. But he had to feed the elephant anyway. Before long, the man would become very poor for he had to spend a lot of money on food for the elephant.

If you give someone a “white elephant”, you give him something useless. It may be something that gets in one’s way. It is worthless to him.

Now, can you think of something that might be called a “white elephant”?

有时候，英语的某些表达与我们汉语有相通之处。

（二）中西方生活习惯和礼节的差异，同样反映在语言上

这方面的例子可以说俯拾皆是。例如：“Where are you going?” 这句话在我们中国是常说的一句话，在路上碰到熟人，闲着没事随便一问。可是美国人听了，他们会感到迷惑不解，因为“going to some place” is quite a private business of their own.在他们的国家里，只有警察才有权利这样问。还有“Have you had your meal?”，在中国已成为最常用的问候语了。但在美国的大街上，你这样说意味着，你要请朋友吃饭去。

入乡随俗，这话不假。英国人喜欢谈论天气，假若你到了伦敦，见面就谈天气没错。而且你千万不要与对方的观点相抵触，即使大雨倾盆，雷雨交加，英国人说“天气真好”(Nice day, isn't it?)，你不能说不好：Yes, it is a lovely day!这里有文为证：

Every Country Has Its Own Customs

“Where are you going?” This question is often asked by Chinese when two friends meet in the street. But if you ask Americans the same question, they will be puzzled because they think that “going to some place” is quite a private business of their own. It has nothing to do with other people. In their eyes, only a policeman will ask such a question in the street.

The same thing will happen to Americans if you ask, “Have you had your meal?” In fact, to us Chinese, such questions do not mean anything but a greeting.

In America when two friends meet in the street, they will say, “Hello!” or “How are you?” instead of asking him the questions mentioned above. If two friends meet at meal time and one asks the other, “Have you had your meal?” that means he wants to invite his friends to have a meal with him. It's quite different from what it means in Chinese.

In England people like to talk about weather when they meet. As the weather changes very often in England, it becomes the most important topic among people. If you go to England, you must be good at discussing the weather, or you will find yourself stilted. There is a very important rule in discussing the weather: You must never contradict anybody when talking about weather. Should it rain and snow, should hurricanes uproot the trees from sides of the road, and should someone remark to you, “Nice day, isn't it?”--- answer without hesitation: “Isn't it lovely?”

So, you see, different countries have different customs.

还有在餐桌上，我们的主人总是力劝客人多吃，盘子还没干净就又加上了饭菜(always putting more food onto your plate as soon as you have emptied it)。这在中国似乎是很礼貌的事情，但美国人感觉会很不舒服，他如果没有吃饱就直接向主人要了。然而，中国的客人则相反：A Chinese guest very often refuses the offer of food or drink though he's in fact still hungry or thirsty. 这里有文为证：

Good Manners in China Are Good in America?

The customs in different countries are rather different. If you have dinner with a Chinese host, he always puts more food onto your plate as soon as you have emptied it. That often discomforts you greatly. You have to eat the food even if you do not want any more. You have also noticed that when a Chinese sits at an American's dinner party, he very often refuses the offer of food or drink though he's in fact still hungry or thirsty. This might be a good manner in China, but it is not in the West at all.

In the United States, it is impolite to keep asking someone again and again or in­sist on his accepting something. Americans have a direct way of speaking. If they want something, they will ask for it. If not, they will say, "No, thanks". When an American is served with beer by the host, for example, he might say, "No, thanks. I'll take some orange juice if you have it." That is what an American will do. So when you go to the United States, you'd better remember the famous saying: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do."

还有一些称谓，中西方也有较大差别。我们常说的“李老师，王老师”，在英语中一般不说Teacher Li 或Teacher Wang. 而是根据性别，直接说：Miss Li 或Mr. Wang。

有些词汇随着时代的变迁，本来在外国也已过时，但我们国家仍在沿用。如：“农民”这个词，我们有的人还在使用peasant，不用farmer。这对中国的农民有“污蔑”之嫌，因为这个词是指受剥削的“贫下中农”。都解放60多年了，中国还有peasant吗？

还有一些词语在习惯上的不同，例如last 和next这两个词，中西方的概念是不一样的。例如：I went to see my uncle last Wednesday. 有人译成“上周三我去看望我叔叔了。” 但不一定，也许是在本周三。是这样的，它可能指“上周三”，也可能指“本周三”，这要看说话的时间。如果说话时间是在Wednesday 或之前，那么，last Wednesday 就是指“上周三”；但如果说话时间是在Thursday 或之后，那么，last Wednesday 则是指“本周三”。这是因为，在英语中last 这个单词，是指“离说话时最近的上一个时间”，同理，英语中的next，也是指“离说话时最近的下一个时间”。因此，英语和汉语在这方面有一定的差异，需要特别注意。

同理，next Wednesday不一定是指“下周三”，也可能是指“本周三”；last autumn 也许是“去年秋天”，也许是“今年秋天”。这要看说话的具体时间。

请看下面几种说法，试着对比翻译一下：

1. last week（上一个周）  last Tuesday（上周二或本周二）

2. last year（去年）    last spring（去年春天或今年春天）

3. next week（下一个周）next Thursday（下周四或本周四）

4. next year（明年） next autumn（明年秋天或今年秋天）

（三）不同民族有不同的爱好

之所以成为一个民族，是因为这批人有着共同的价值观、信仰、文化仪式与血脉认同，这也构成了不同的民族有不同的文化现象。当我们作为某个民族的一分子，观察其他民族的风俗文化时，我们会有参照和对比，从而对民族自身的礼仪有更深的体味与了解。因之，语言本身带有文化的烙印。

It is interesting to know what people of different nations like to do best.

【法国人】In France, love is the major pastime for ordinary people. When a woman enters a cafe or a restaurant she is freely discussed, not only about her appearance but about her past and future as well. She invites looks in the street whether she is beautiful or plain. There is no better way for a woman to regain her self-confidence than a walk in the streets of Paris or Marseilles.

【意大利人】In Italy, people love talking. They sit about in cafes, exchanging news and discussing politics. They do not hesitate to ask questions about the family, income and private life of anybody who happens to be there.

【瑞士人】The Swiss eat as a pastime, ladies walk into a teashop, eat a couple of ice-creams and a large piece of chocolate cake, and then leave, complaining about their weights.

【美国人】For the Americans, the greatest fondness is said to be the push of buttons. You push a button in the lift; you push a button for cigarettes, chewing gums, and stamps even for a life insurance. You can even push a button and get married and another button to get divorced.

【英国人】In England, waiting in a line is a national passion. The English will form a line whenever they have the opportunity. Long queues can be seen, for example, at stations when the train is practically empty and everybody can have a seat.

（四）中美不同民族的价值观

中国是世界上最大的发展中国家，经济腾飞中的国力日渐强大；而美国则是世界上最大的发达国家，也是当今唯一的超级大国。两国的文化和历史有许多不同，值得相互借鉴。以下笔者简要总结了中美两个不同民族的价值观。通过比较，会更直观地展示两国价值观取向的差异，相信对了解中美不同文化和语言差异有所帮助。

Chinese Values VS American Values

Money-wise...（金钱方面）

1) Americans spend more than they have, so they are almost always in debt. Chinese spend less or equal to the amount they have, so they always have money left in the bank for emergency.

2) American kids love to make money by themselves. Chinese kids almost always ask money from their parents.

3) American parents think attending an expensive but prestigious college is useless. Chinese parents would do anything to send their children to good colleges even if it means that they have to sell everything they own.

Relationship-wise...（人际关系方面）

1) American girls are usually very straightforward when expressing their love. They don't use wicked tricks to get their boyfriends. Chinese girls are subtler in their ways of expressing love. Usually, they wait for the other party involved for signs. Sometimes, Chinese girls would even spread rumors about the girl that the boy likes in order to separate them so that she gets the boy for herself.

2) American girls don't tolerate any mistakes that their boyfriends make while Chinese girls always suffer silently.

School-wise… (教育方面)

1) American girls are almost always involved in sports, dancing and singing groups while Chinese girls are almost always involved in academic and instrumental groups.

2) American students think that B is a gift while Chinese students think that B is a death sentence.

American Parents VS Chinese Parents （美国家长对中国家长）

1) American parents allow their daughters or sons to go out with their boy or girl friends as long as they come home at the certain curfew. Chinese parents usually don’t approve of having relationship in middle or high school.

2) American parents support and encourage their children at all times while Chinese parents think that criticism is the best love in the world.

3) American parents only look at their children's good side. Chinese parents seem to only see their children's bad side.

American Teachers VS Chinese Teachers （美国老师对中国老师）

1) American teachers love everyone equally. Actually, they love bad students more than good students. Chinese teachers always favor the good students.

2) During a parents meeting, American teachers will always find good things to say to the parents, even to those with the worst grades. While Chinese teachers tell the parents every single mistake that their children made in school.

3) American teachers don't teach. They just sit there and make the students read on their own. Chinese teachers teach things that are not even in the book.

The above comparisons are strictly based upon an observation for the past 10 years. It applies to the general population rather than specific cases. Therefore, any disagreement incurred is inevitable. 

【注】本文为我在“2008年山东省暑期英语教师远程培训”的作业论文，得到英语专家们的一致推崇，获一等奖。原文题目是《外语学习离不开文化背景》，这次内容略有改动。